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Incubated eggs should be candled 2 or more times. The first candling should be done on the 5th and 7th day to check for fertility. If they are fertile blood veins will be seen. If they are not, they appear clear. The second candling is done on the 18th day to confirm the presence of a chick. An egg with a living embryo clearly shows a large section containing the embryo and a smaller clear section, containing the air space.
Methods of Incubation
Egg incubation means putting an egg in a place where the right conditions for embryonic development are provided so that a chick is ultimately hatched from the egg. For chicken eggs, these conditions must be provided for 21 days.
How are incubation eggs selected?
Eggs for incubation are selected on the following basis:
Eggs that;
Are fertilized
is neither too small nor too large
are clean
have no cracks on the eggshell
are less than seven (7) days
are from breeder birds with a good cock-hen ratio.
are stored under low temperature below 23.90C.
There are two main methods of incubation. These are:
Natural incubation
Artificial incubation
Let us briefly look at each method starting with the natural incubation.
A. Natural Incubation
In natural incubation, you choose a broody hen that is large enough to cover the eggs and thus keep them warm. The hen should be healthy and preferably vaccinated, with a good brooding and mothering record. The signs of broodiness are indicated when the hen stops laying, remains sitting on her eggs, ruffles her feathers, spreads her wings and makes a distinctive clucking sound. Brooding may be induced with dummy eggs.
About 10-15 eggs are adequate to sit on. More than 15 eggs leads to low hatchability. Allow the hen to sit in a dark, vermin proof, simple laying box or quiet place for the 21 days. Use nesting material, such as, dry grass, sawdust and wood shavings to line the nest. The hen warms the eggs and turns them regularly to ensure even heating until they hatch. Figure 3.9 below shows an illustration of brooding hens.
Poultry Keeping & Management
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Figure 3.9: Brooding hens
Factors to consider during natural incubation
You should consider the following factors during natural incubation:
The broody hen should be dusted with appropriate insecticides to rid her of parasites itchy parasites often cause hens to get up and abandon eggs;
Provide dry grains with grit, greens and water for the brooding hen;
Remove any broken eggs;
Wash eggs that get soiled (dirty) using a clean cloth soaked in warm water;
Ensure no egg is left out in the cold by providing less than 15 eggs per hen;
After the eggs hatch, you should move mother and chicks to a new clean place.
Advantages of Natural Incubation
The natural incubation method has the following advantages:
A small-scale farmer who cannot afford an incubator can multiply his flock using this method;
It is less laborious as there is no need of turning the eggs and checking the temperature;
It does not require maintenance cost;
It requires little skill.
Disadvantages
Natural incubation has a number of disadvantages. These are:
Only a few chicks can be hatched at a time per hen;
The farmer cannot plan when to incubate;
The availability of broody hen sitters is not always possible.
B. Artificial Incubation
There are many commercial artificial incubators of varying capacities. Most depend on electricity, but some use gas or kerosene for heating. All use a thermostatic switching device to keep the temperature constant within one (1) Celsius degree. The correct humidity is usually maintained by having a pre-determined surface area of water appropriate for each incubator chamber.
Why is it necessary to turn eggs during incubation?
Turning eggs during artificial incubation is important because of the following reasons:
To stop the embryo from sticking on the inner shell membrane;
To enable the embryo utilize nutrients efficiently;
To enable even distribution of heat inside the egg.
How are eggs set in an incubator?
Eggs are set with the large end facing upwards. This part of the egg contains an air sac, which carries oxygen to the chick during the hatching process. See
TAFADHALI SHARE HABARI HII KWA RAFIKI ZAKO HAPO CHINI ILI IWAFIKIE NA WENGINE PIA
Pig industry sustains livelihoods of many families in Kenya. Pig rearing has been one of wellestablishedindustry
in Kenya following growing export markets and increasing number of health
conscious consumers. Pig production if efficiently managed has great potentials for increasing
protein supply in Kenya. Smallholder pig farms in Tharaka-Nithi County have been facing
varying and dismal profits. The main objective of this study will be to establish which
institutional arrangements and management factors affect the profit efficiency of small-holder
pig farmers in Tharaka-Nithi County. A multi-stage purposive sampling technique will be
adopted to collect cross sectional data of eighty (80) smallholder pig farmers in Maara
Constituency by the use of semi-structured interview schedules. The work will employ Data
Envelopment Analysis to come up with profit efficiency rankings among the farmers and
stochastic frontier profit function will be used to analyze the factors that affect profit efficiency.
The data will be processed using STATA and DEA Frontier packages. The findings could be
useful to the stakeholders of the pig industry sub sector to formulate policies pertaining to pig
enterprise inputs, marketing issues and financial products and also can establish benchmarks
which can be used as a package for enhancing and stabilizing profit efficiencies of smallholder
pig farmers which in turn could help improve the Kenya economy.
An Overview of Livestock Sub-sector in Kenya Perspectives, Opportunities and Innovations for Market Access for Market Access for Pastoral Producers Recent statistics point that the livestock sub-sector in Kenya accounts for approximately 10% of the National Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This is 30% of the agricultural GDP. It employs about 50% of the national agricultural workforce and about 90% of the ASAL workforce. 95% of ASAL household income comes from this sub-sector. This is despite the fact that the sector receives only 1 % of the total annual budget allocation. The livestock resource base is estimated at 60 million units comprising of 29 million indigenous and exotic chicken, 10 million beef cattle, 3 million dairy and dairy crosses, 9 million goats, 7 million sheep, 0.8 mi camels, 0.52 mi donkeys and 0.3 million pigs. (Strategy for Revitalizing Agriculture (SRA) 2003) Kenya is broadly self-sufficient in most livestock products but is a net importer of red meat mostly inform of on-the-hoof animals trekked across the porous boundaries of neighbouring countries- Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. Livestock supply in Kenya results from a complex set of interactions between Kenya and its neighbours and the traditional Middle East market and their respective livestock populations, demand and market prices. Kenya is part of a regional market where livestock flow according to markets and price differentials in a liberalized system throughout the region as a whole and where Nairobi represents a focus of demand for the region Supply of red-meat from domestic cattle, shoats and camels falls short of demand, and is almost permanently augmented by a traditional livestock trade drawn in from neighbouring countries, especially Somalia, Tanzania, Sudan and Ethiopia in varying quantities according to demand, which maintains a supply/demand
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